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首页全新工程系统规划与设计指南第三版:严谨解决实践问题
全新工程系统规划与设计指南第三版:严谨解决实践问题
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《工程系统规划与设计第三版》是一本全面介绍工程工作范围和性质的最新教材,它采用严谨而实际的方法探讨工程问题的解决。该书分为规划、建模和设计阶段,从项目的概念框架出发,逐步深入到工程项目的实施或建设。作者格雷姆·丹尼尔(Graeme Daniel)、特伦斯·道南(Terence Dannell)、伯纳黛特·弗利(Bernadette Foley)和罗伯特·沃纳(Robert Warner)结合案例研究和现实世界的例子,展示了工程师的角色及其在实践中的方法,尤其关注土木和环境工程领域,但所涵盖的技巧和方法也适用于其他工程学科。 书中强调了工程设计和问题解决的核心,同时涵盖了经济、环境、社会和伦理等多方面的考量。内容旨在满足一年级新生的学习需求,同时也适合高年级本科生,甚至可作为专业人士的手册,详尽地阐述了工程规划和设计的基本原理。本书不仅提供了理论知识,还通过实践案例帮助读者理解和应用这些理论,是理解和掌握工程项目管理不可或缺的参考资料。版权方面,作者和出版社已尽力确保引用的材料准确可靠,但仍可能存在未获得授权的情况,如发现遗漏,欢迎读者提供反馈以便进行修正。该书的国际标准书号(ISBN)为1-1380-3189-0,印制时使用了无酸纸,保证了书籍的质量和耐久性。
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Engineering and Society 3
restrictions, that most people reflect on the engineering infrastructure that makes our
modern life possible.
Unfortunately, there are many countries and regions in the world that are
without adequate engineering infrastructure. This is a challenge to engineers, but it
is an equal or even greater challenge to politicians and civil servants. There are
always technical and organisational problems for engineers to solve, but poor
infrastructure within a region or city or nation is usually indicative of broader issues
and problems that do not have engineering solutions. It is too often a sign that
fundamental social and political problems must be addressed by the people and their
political representatives.
City growth and transport technology
In the past there has been a progressive increase in the size and population of
cities around the world, which has resulted from the development of new transport
technologies.
In ancient city states such as Athens, people relied on the muscle power of
humans and animals for transport. Although heavy goods could be delivered using
animal-drawn carriages, most citizens walked wherever they needed to go. The city
size was thus limited by the ability of most people to walk to the various parts of
their city, and home again, comfortably in a day. This limitation applied to ancient
Rome, and to cities up to and beyond the middle ages.
It was not until the 17
th
and 18
th
Centuries that mass transport began, initially
by means of large horse-drawn vehicles. Cities such as London and Paris then
increased rapidly in size and population. Before this, the size and layout of a city
were governed by the need for workers to be within walking distance of their places
of work (Richards, 1969; White, 1978). With the invention of the steam engine and
then the advent of city and suburban railways in the 19
th
Century, large cities with a
commuting workforce became possible.
In the 20
th
Century, the internal combustion engine and the automobile,
together with upgraded roads and freeways, allowed city conglomerates to develop
with a very large population spread over an enormous urban area. The way of life
in such cities is necessarily very different to that in a small traditional city, such as
those still found in Europe.
In a discussion of the relative merits of compact cities, Gordon and
Richardson (1997) state that in 1890 the effective radius of US cities was
approximately 2 miles (3.2 km). By 1920 it had grown to 8 miles (12.9 km) following
the development of public transport. By 1950 the figure had risen to 11 miles (17.7
km) with the widespread use of the automobile. By 1970, with the construction of
urban freeways the average radius had increased to 20 to 24 miles (32.2 to 38.6
km).
1.2 HISTORICAL NOTE
In this short note, we can only provide a superficial view of engineering in history.
However, society and its engineering infrastructure have developed together in step,
and are closely interwoven. One practical lesson from history is that engineering
work must be based on an understanding of society and how it functions, and on a
careful and impartial evaluation of the sometimes-conflicting demands that come
from individuals and from the community.
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Engineering and Society 4
The first significant engineering works were probably undertaken around
10000 to 12000 years ago, when our human forebears started to live together in
permanent settlements. This was a time of great change: humans were giving up the
life of nomadic hunter-gatherers to adopt a more sedentary, agricultural-based way
of life. The settlements needed basic infrastructure, such as permanent dwellings,
all-weather pathways, and outer defensive walls to protect against wild animals and
marauding humans. Archaeologists tell us that the agricultural revolution probably
began in the river valleys of the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East, which includes
parts of modern day Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, and Egypt.
This new communal way of life, based on agriculture and the domestication of
animals, led to greater efficiency in the production of food, which in turn allowed
the settlements to grow and to become more efficient. As the settlements grew,
there was need for more complex infrastructure, for large, communal buildings and
for permanent and reliable sources of water, both for domestic use and for
agriculture. Archaeological evidence of early irrigation systems and large buildings
abound in the Fertile Crescent. Ruins have been excavated in Turkey of
monumental buildings that predate the Egyptian pyramids by millennia. Extensive
engineering works were carried out by the Sumerians in present-day southern Iraq,
in the period from the fifth to the second millennium BCE. According to Kramer
(1963), the land they inhabited was “hot and dry, with soil that was arid and wind-
swept and unproductive”. But by 3000 BCE the Sumerians had turned the land ...
“into a veritable Garden of Eden and developed what was probably the first high
civilization in the history of man". To transform their environment, they had to use
both technological and organisational skills. As Kramer points out, “the
construction of an intricate system of canals, dykes, weirs, and reservoirs demanded
… engineering skill and knowledge. Surveys and plans had to be prepared which
involved the use of levelling instruments, measuring rods, drawing, and mapping."
The creation of such buildings and irrigation canals required both the organisational
and technological skills that are basic to engineering work.
Continuing improvements in the agricultural economy allowed people in
larger settlements to specialise in their work, and, with increased leisure time, to put
more effort into handicrafts and art forms. However, these developments also led to
an ever more complicated way of life, and to a stratification of society with
inequalities that are still with us. With everyday life and work becoming more and
more complicated, it was necessary to create and maintain permanent records, and
so the first systems of writing were developed, using the mediums of stone, wax,
papyrus and, somewhat later, paper.
There was an increasing demand for engineering works as permanent
settlements expanded into cities, supported by surrounding agricultural regions, and
then as the cities and regions came together to become countries. Of course, these
developments were not restricted to the Middle East. By the beginning of the
common era, a little over 2000 years ago, the results of the agricultural revolution
were to be seen in many parts of Europe, Asia and the Middle East. Engineering
works of great complexity and magnitude had already been undertaken in ancient
Egypt, the Roman Empire, India and China. Comparable developments in the
Americas came somewhat later, because of the later migration of peoples into that
part of the world.
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Engineering and Society 5
The ever-increasing demands for an improved and expanded infrastructure led
to increased efficiency and increased capacity in the irrigation systems for
agriculture, the water supplies for cities, the roads for transport and for
communication, and the walls and fortifications to protect cities against attack. In
undertaking large, monumental engineering works, organisational skills were
needed, as well as technological skills. As Rivers (2005) has pointed out, the Great
Wall of China, which was started around the 6th or 7th Century BCE, “could not
have been constructed solely with the technology of cutting stone from quarries and
then transporting those stones to the designated sites. Unless an elaborate
organisation existed in Chinese society, the Great Wall would never have been built,
then or now.”
An ancient engineer’s life and its rewards
Sprague de Camp (1963) gives an account of an engineer who made good in
ancient Egypt, a land of rigid class lines not easily crossed. However, engineers
succeeded in crossing them, since engineering ability was not a common gift. The
builder-engineer-architect Nekhebu (from 24
th
Century BC) told on his tomb the
story of his rise from humble beginnings:
“His Majesty found me a common builder; and His Majesty conferred upon me the
offices of Inspector of Builders, then Overseer of Builders, and Superintendent of a
Guild. And His Majesty conferred upon me the offices of King’s Architect and
Builder, then Royal Architect and Builder under the King’s Supervision. And His
Majesty conferred upon me the offices of Sole Companion, King’s Architect and
Builder in the Two Houses.”
Nekhebu also received other titles and was rewarded with gold, bread and beer.
Early engineering was usually either military or non-military in nature. The
term “civilian” engineering was used to distinguish between the two fields, and is
now referred to as civil engineering. Armed conflict makes up a large part of human
history; it seems that it has always been with us. Skirmishes surely occurred
between small competing groups of hunter-gatherers. This would have escalated to
conflict between permanent settlements, and out-and-out warfare between city
states, and then between countries and even civilisations.
Two important aspects of military engineering are defence and attack. The
engineering works used in the defence of ancient cities included high outer walls
and fortifications, and large underground cisterns within the city to store water. To
attack and besiege a city, military engineers could attempt to undermine the outer
walls and fortifications, and use mechanical catapults to bombard the walls and the
interior of the city with large rocks. Movable towered structures with protective
armour assisted in the breaching of walls. Catapults and cranes were used by the
defenders to bombard the attacking army and to drop rocks and burning oil on those
attempting to scale the walls. There were also non-engineering options for the
besieging army: to attempt to poison the water supply and to cut off the supply lines
to the city that brought food and other essential goods.
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Engineering and Society 6
Early American civilisations and their engineering infrastructure
When Juan de Grijalva set sail from Havana on April 8, 1518, he was in search of
an ancient civilisation, one that Spanish sailors had discovered quite by accident
the previous year. Three sailing ships, blown off course by a severe storm, had
happened upon ancient ruins of a splendid city. There, according to Gallenkamp
(1960) “an astonishing sight was visible in the distance: rising up as though an
outgrowth of the native limestone were a high wall enclosing a series of terraced
pyramids and palace-like buildings constructed of carefully fitted stones”.
The constructions were more than just the work of skilled stonemasons: they
showed a high level of planning, design and organization, and the Spaniards were
convinced they had found a lost civilisation. This assessment came well before they
saw any of its population, before they had studied its language, its art, and its legal
and political systems. The evidence of technological expertise, engineering skill
and organisation on a significant scale was all that was required.
The Maya civilisation was not unique. There were also the Incas in South
America and the Aztecs in central and southern Mexico. In each case an advanced
civilisation could be recognised by the architecture and engineering infrastructure.
On further study, the characteristics of each civilisation were uncovered.
Sometimes there were surprises: the Incas had no written language, nor had they
developed the wheel, yet the fact that they had achieved a state of civilisation was
beyond question on the basis of their engineering prowess alone.
Figure 1.1 Ruins of the Inca Settlement at Machu Picchu, constructed in the mid-15
th
Century CE
(© G C Dandy).
Archaeological evidence indicates that mechanical, mining and chemical
engineering works were also undertaken in the distant past, when humans started to
live together in settlements. Around 9800 BCE, gypsum plaster was produced in
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Engineering and Society 7
Mesopotamia by heating gypsum in wood-fired kilns. This material is also known
as “plaster of Paris” because there was a large deposit of gypsum in Montmartre in
Paris, France. In the time between 8000 and 7000 BCE, people inhabiting what
is now modern day Turkey mined copper ore. They beat it into beads, hooks and
metal sheets. Somewhat earlier, the people of Mesopotamia had formed copper
plates into small tubes as a form of jewellery (Mithen, 2003).
Later in ancient Rome, multi-storey apartment buildings up to six stories high
were constructed in the cheap parts of town to house the ordinary people, the
plebeians. As the building work was often shoddy, special building ordinances were
created to try to improve the quality of construction.
Water was supplied to the city of Rome (though not to individual apartment
buildings) by aqueducts. These traversed the plains, and, where necessary, linked up
with tunnels that were dug through the hills. Of the 11 aqueducts for the city of
Rome, one was over 100 km in length. In the city, water was reticulated by means
of pipes made of clay and lead. Although engineering has been attributed with
improving the health of populations by the provision of clean potable (drinkable)
water, it has been speculated that the use of lead water pipes may have been
responsible for lead poisoning among the population of Rome before its fall in the
5th Century CE.
Spectacular multi-level stone Roman aqueducts still survive in various places
in Europe, such as Segovia in Spain, and Nîmes in France (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 The Roman Pont du Gard, part of the Nîmes aqueduct crossing the Gardon river in
southern France (© R F Warner).
Engineering in the ancient world was based on experience and empirical rules.
According to Straub (1952) “Despite the remarkable scientific standard, especially
of the Greeks in the spheres of mechanics and statics, there was hardly any
connection between theory and practice, and hardly any attempt to apply the
scientific knowledge to practical purposes, in the sense of modern engineering.”
Engineering was practised as a craft, with reliance on common sense and time-
honoured experience rather than on the application of scientific principles.
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